Who were the builders and how did they build temples?

Architects, artisans, and labourers formed guilds to construct the temples. According to Michell, their knowledge and artisan traditions were first transmitted by oral transmission, then subsequently through palm-leaf manuscripts. The building heritage was often passed down via families from generation to generation, and this knowledge was preserved with zeal. The guilds functioned as a corporate body that established work standards and standard remuneration. These guilds grew affluent throughout time and made philanthropic contributions, as attested by inscriptions. The guilds encompassed practically every element of life in the camps around the building site, where the workers resided for the duration of the project, which may be many years in the case of huge projects. A main architect was in charge of the project (sutradhara). In terms of authority, the construction superintendent was on par with the project manager. The main stonemason and the chief image-maker were also key members who worked together to finish a temple. Shilpins were the sculptors’ names. Women were involved in temple construction, but only in minor tasks like as polishing stones and removing. Some Hindu literature accept all castes as shilpins, whereas others do not. The Brahmins were specialists in art theory and provided guidance to the workers when necessary. They also carried out sanctum and superstructure consecration ceremonies.

IN THE EARLIEST PERIOD OF HINDU ART

Artists enjoyed significant latitude in the early centuries of Hindu art, from around the 4th century to around the 10th century, as indicated by the many variants and advances in sculpted pictures and temple designs. As iconography became increasingly uniform and the requirement for iconometry consistency grew, much of this independence was lost. According to Michell, this “probably reflected the influence of brahman theologians” as well as the artist’s “growing dependency on the brahmins” for appropriate sacred image shapes. In a temple project, “personal pursuit of self-expression” was not permitted; instead, the artist articulated religious values in visual form through a temple, mostly anonymously.

Heritage of temple construction schools

In addition to guilds, surviving literature reveal that in ancient India, various schools of Hindu temple design evolved. Each school created its own literature and gurukuls (learning centres). The Vishwakarma school and the Maya (Devanagari: not to be pronounced as Maayaa) school were the most important of them in the states of Bharne and Krusche. Treatises, vocabulary, and innovations relating to the Nagara style of architecture are credited to the Vishwakarma school, while those linked to the Dravida style are credited to the Maya school. The Vesara style, which mixes features of the Nagara and Dravida styles, is thought to be a reflection of one of the other defunct schools.
Some researchers have questioned the books’ relevancy, questioning whether the painters relied on silpa sastras theory and Sanskrit construction manuals published by Brahmins, and whether these treatises came before or after the large temples and old sculptures found there. Others wonder if large temples and intricate symmetric architecture or sculpture with continuous themes and common iconography throughout many centuries could have been produced by artists and architects without proper theory, shared vocabulary, and tools, and if so, how. The truth “must lie somewhere in between,” according to Adam Hardy, an architecture historian and professor of Asian Architecture. According to George Michell, an art historian and professor specialised in Hindu architecture, the theory and the creative field practise most likely co-evolved, and the theory and the creative field practise most likely co-evolved and the theoreticians were likely consulted by the construction workers and artists who built intricate temples

Sub-schools of temple architecture in the Nagara style

The Shikara (Deul), which rises vertically before curling inwards at the top, is the most obvious defining feature of the Odisha School. The predominant kind is square, with round peaks at the upper reaches. The exteriors of these temples are beautifully carved, and the interiors are usually unadorned. Most Odisha temples feature boundary walls, unlike Nagara temples in the north.
Chandel School — These temples, unlike those in Odisha, are designed as a single unit with Shikaras that curve from bottom to top. The porticos and halls are capped with tiny Shikaras rising from the centre tower and towers that progressively ascend up to the main tower.
The Solanki School is comparable to the Chandel School, but it has carved ceilings that resemble a genuine dome. The minute and elaborate ornamental motifs are a unique aspect of ancient temples. Carvings can be seen on both the inner and exterior sides of the walls, with the exception of the central shrine

Who were the builders and how did they build temples?